BiologyLover

             What is  Biomining ? Biomining is the technique of extracting metals from ores and other solid materials typically using prokaryotes, fungi or plants.                Image source: Google               What is the  Process  of Biomining? The organisms used in Biomining secrete different organic compounds that chelate metals from the environment and bring it back to the cell where they are typically used to coordinate electrons. Biomining techniques may also be used to clean up sites that have been polluted with metals.                   What are the   advantages of Biomining? Improved rates of metal recovery  Reduced capital cost Ideally suited for use in remote locations Environmentally friendly Appropriate to recover a wide spectrum of metals and stabilizing toxic elements Short lead time from d...

               What is treadmilling? Treadmilling is a phenomenon observed in many cellular cytoskeletal filaments, especially in actin filaments and microtubules. It occurs when one end of a filament grows in length while the other end shrinks resulting in a section of filament seemingly "moving " across a stratum or the cytosol.               Actin treadmilling ? Actin treadmilling is the continuous removal of actin monomers from the pointed ends of filaments and their reincorporation at barbed ends —is essential for cell motility . The process is accelerated by the actin-binding protein ADF/cofilin, which stimulates the release of actin monomers from pointed ends.       When treadmilling occurs in actin? Treadmilling of actin filaments in steady state occurs at G-actin concentration is above the Cc of positive (+) end and below the Cc of the (-)end. What are plus and minus ends of...

                        Phagocytosis Performed by  Neutrophils, Monocytes  in blood and macrophages in tissues. Neutrophils- Polymorpho nuclear leucocytes(PMNL) Monocyte -Mononuclear leucocytes Macrophages: Macrophages are large irregular shaped cells that engulf microbes,virus,cellular debris etc.in response to infection.                   Steps of Phagocytosis    1) Vasodilation : At site of entry of bacteria 🦠, diameter of blood vessels increased due to histamine. 2)Adhesion: Accumulation of leucocytes at periphery of blood vessels due to decreased blood flow (blood stasis). 3 ) Diapedesis : Now the leucocytes (neutrophils and monocytes) migrate from the blood vessel by active movement (amoeboid movement) into the E.C.F.This kind of active movement of cell is called Diapedesis. 4)Chemotaxis : Now this leucocyte cells move towards the pathogen by chemotactic ...

                 HLA  HLA (Human  Leucocyte antigens ) were first discovered on Leucocytes.Out of the various genes for histocompatibility antigens,most of the transplantation genes are located on a portion of chromosome 6 . These are called MHC(Major Histocompatibility complex) or HLA complex.The recipient immune system can recognise the Histocompatibility antigens on the donor organ and accordingly accept or reject it.                   Haplotype The array of HLA alleles on a homologue of chromosome 6 is known as haplotype.An individual inherits only one HLA haplotype from each parent. * Only identical twins can have identical haplotype. *  The best HLA matching can be observed within the same family .                                 Tissue typing The procedure carried out to match HLA protei...

    Parthenogenesis * Mode of reproduction in which the female gamete develops into embryo without any genetic contribution from the male gamete is called parthenogenesis. * The individual formed from parthenogenesis is called parthenot. *It is also called virgin birth. * It is always monoparental. *Term parthenogenesis is coined by Richar Owen .                            Occurence  Parthenogenesis occur uncertain orders of  insecta: Hymenoptera, Coleoptera ,Homoptera,Rotifera and lower crustaceans .It is also reported in certain vertebrates; in domestic turkey.It occurs sporadically in large number of plants .               Types of parthenogenesis Two types: 1)Natural parthenogenesis 2) Artificial parthenogenesis                                Natural  First reported by Bonnet...

                  A pomixis Definition : Formation of seeds without the fertilisation is called apomixis.  *Term given by Winkler.   It is a specialised asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction. *Common in Asteraceae family,in grasses and 35other family.                 Types of Apomixis ***Adventitious Embryony /Sporophytic Budding:  When diploid cells of Sporophytic tissues like nucellus and integument start to divide and develop into embryo. From nucellus cells ,nucellar embryo is formed. From integument cells , integumentary embryo is formed. Examples : Citrus, Mango 🥭,Opuntia. ** * Apogamy : When Sporophyte develop directly from the gametophyte without fertilization (meiosis occur),the phenomenon called apogamy.Such sporophytes are haploid and non-viable(Non-recurrent Agamospermy). *** Parthenogenesis : The phenomenon in which egg develop direc...

     Galactose tolerance test   It is a laboratory test done to determine the ability of liver to convert galactose into glycogen. Galactose is a monosaccharide,almost exclusively used by liver.The Normal liver is able to convert galactose into glucose,but this function is impaired in intrahepatic disease and the amount of blood galactose and urine galactose is excessive.The liver can be assessed by measuring the utilisation of galactose. This is called Galactose tolerance test.Also called liver function tes t. Types:   1.  The oral method (require 5hours)  2.  The intravenous method (require 2hours,this is more accurat e) Oral galactose tolerance test (OGTT) : This test is performed in the morning after a night's fast.A fasting food sample is collected .Sample serve as ' control'. 40mg galactose  dissolved in a cup full of water is given orally.Further blood samples(to determine whether galactose is metabolized or not) are ...