BiologyLover

                 Dunaliella salina Dunaliella salina is a unicellular microalgae belong to division Chlorophyta . It is found in salinity environments such as salted brines, salt evaporation ponds, and hypersaline lakes  .It is able to tolerate varying NaCl concentrations, ranging from 0.2% to approximately 35% . Thus, Dunaliella salina is a hyper-halotolerant organism found in high densities in saline lakes.  The ability to tolerate high salt concentrations is advantageous, since competition is minimal in high salt concentration areas.  How D.salina   tolerate high salt concentration? D. salina has adapted to survive in high salinity environments by accumulating glycerol to balance osmotic pressure. Note :  D. salina is also adapted to solar radiation using β-carotene to protect against ionizing energy.                 Red Colour of Salt Brines  Dunaliella salina...

                CORAL REEF Coral reef seems like plants but in actually coral reef are made up of marine invertebrate animals that are related to anemones and jelly fishes. Single coral animal is a polyp . Polyp are shallow water organisms have a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton.The polyps extract calcium salts from sea water to form these hard polyp are usually look like soft round mouth covered with tentacles. Polyp doesn't always act alone.Many species of coral grow in colonies with hundreds or thousands of polyp acting as a single organism.  CONDITION FOR CORAL REEF FORMATION

                            Twins Twins occur when two babies are born to one mother after a single pregnancy.                   Types of Twins Two types: 1).  Monozygotic/Identical 2). Dizygotic/Fraternal/Non-Identical               Monozygotic twins   They're identical . They formed when one zygote, created with just one egg and one sperm, splits into two new eggs, resulting in two embryos rather than one. Each embryo then develops into a separate foetus.                   Dizygotic twins They occur when two separate eggs are fertilized by two separate sperm. Dizygotic twins are the result of hyperovulation, the release of multiple eggs in a single cycle.  Note:.  Dizygotic twins share only 50% of the same genes, whereas identical twins share 100%, which explains why frater...

  Difference between anthocyanin and anthocyanidins Anthocyanin in berry skin of grapes Similarities between anthocyanin and anthocyanidins: Anthocyanin and anthocyanidin are two types of red-blue plant pigments. Both anthocyanin and anthocyanidin can be found in fruits, flowers, leaves, stems, and roots of higher plants. Both anthocyanin and anthocyanidin are flavonoids. The basic core of both anthocyanin and anthocyanidin is the flavylium Both anthocyanin and anthocyanidin depend upon the pH. Both anthocyanin and anthocyanidin are composed of antioxidant properties. Both anthocyanin and anthocyanidin are used as food colorants and pharmaceutical components.

                    What is Gut Microbiome? The term “gut microbiome” refers specifically to the microorganisms living in your intestines. A person has about 300 to 500 different species of bacteria in their digestive tract.While some microorganisms are harmful to our health, many are incredibly beneficial and even necessary to a healthy body. In fact, without the gut microbiome, it would be very difficult to survive. The gut microbiome begins to affect your body the moment you are born. Effect of Gut biome on person overall heath: Digesting breast milk: Some of the bacteria that first begin to grow inside babies’ intestines are called Bifidobacteria . They digest the healthy sugars in breast milk that are important for growth. Digesting fiber: Certain bacteria digest fiber, producing short chain fatty acids, which are important for gut health. Fiber may help prevent weight gain, diabetes, heart disease and the risk of cancer. He...

                       Haptens A small molecule which, when combined with a larger carrier such as a protein, can elicit the production of antibodies which bind specifically to it (in the free or combined state). OR A hapten is a substance that can combine with a specific antibody but lacks antigenicity of its own. Image source : Pinterest Example — well-known example of a hapten is urushiol , which is the toxin found in poison ivy. Other haptens that are commonly used in molecular biology applications include fluorescein, biotin, digoxigenin, and dinitrophenol. Difference between antibodies and heptan 

What is Roberstsonian translocation? A Robertsonian translocation results when the long arms of two acrocentric chromosomes fuse at the centromere and the two short arms ar e  lost . It  is  the most common form of chromosomal translocation in humans . About 1 in 1,000 people are born with a r obertsonian translocation.           Image source: Google                              Symptoms The condition does not necessarily cause any symptoms, but some people with it may face difficulties having a family. People who carry the abnormality, however, may pass it on to their children. Aspiring parents may wish to seek genetic counseling before starting a family.                               Examples Long   arms of chromosomes 13 and 14 fuse, no significant genetic material is lost—and the person is...

             What is  Biomining ? Biomining is the technique of extracting metals from ores and other solid materials typically using prokaryotes, fungi or plants.                Image source: Google               What is the  Process  of Biomining? The organisms used in Biomining secrete different organic compounds that chelate metals from the environment and bring it back to the cell where they are typically used to coordinate electrons. Biomining techniques may also be used to clean up sites that have been polluted with metals.                   What are the   advantages of Biomining? Improved rates of metal recovery  Reduced capital cost Ideally suited for use in remote locations Environmentally friendly Appropriate to recover a wide spectrum of metals and stabilizing toxic elements Short lead time from d...

               What is treadmilling? Treadmilling is a phenomenon observed in many cellular cytoskeletal filaments, especially in actin filaments and microtubules. It occurs when one end of a filament grows in length while the other end shrinks resulting in a section of filament seemingly "moving " across a stratum or the cytosol.               Actin treadmilling ? Actin treadmilling is the continuous removal of actin monomers from the pointed ends of filaments and their reincorporation at barbed ends —is essential for cell motility . The process is accelerated by the actin-binding protein ADF/cofilin, which stimulates the release of actin monomers from pointed ends.       When treadmilling occurs in actin? Treadmilling of actin filaments in steady state occurs at G-actin concentration is above the Cc of positive (+) end and below the Cc of the (-)end. What are plus and minus ends of...

                        Phagocytosis Performed by  Neutrophils, Monocytes  in blood and macrophages in tissues. Neutrophils- Polymorpho nuclear leucocytes(PMNL) Monocyte -Mononuclear leucocytes Macrophages: Macrophages are large irregular shaped cells that engulf microbes,virus,cellular debris etc.in response to infection.                   Steps of Phagocytosis    1) Vasodilation : At site of entry of bacteria 🦠, diameter of blood vessels increased due to histamine. 2)Adhesion: Accumulation of leucocytes at periphery of blood vessels due to decreased blood flow (blood stasis). 3 ) Diapedesis : Now the leucocytes (neutrophils and monocytes) migrate from the blood vessel by active movement (amoeboid movement) into the E.C.F.This kind of active movement of cell is called Diapedesis. 4)Chemotaxis : Now this leucocyte cells move towards the pathogen by chemotactic ...

                 HLA  HLA (Human  Leucocyte antigens ) were first discovered on Leucocytes.Out of the various genes for histocompatibility antigens,most of the transplantation genes are located on a portion of chromosome 6 . These are called MHC(Major Histocompatibility complex) or HLA complex.The recipient immune system can recognise the Histocompatibility antigens on the donor organ and accordingly accept or reject it.                   Haplotype The array of HLA alleles on a homologue of chromosome 6 is known as haplotype.An individual inherits only one HLA haplotype from each parent. * Only identical twins can have identical haplotype. *  The best HLA matching can be observed within the same family .                                 Tissue typing The procedure carried out to match HLA protei...

    Parthenogenesis * Mode of reproduction in which the female gamete develops into embryo without any genetic contribution from the male gamete is called parthenogenesis. * The individual formed from parthenogenesis is called parthenot. *It is also called virgin birth. * It is always monoparental. *Term parthenogenesis is coined by Richar Owen .                            Occurence  Parthenogenesis occur uncertain orders of  insecta: Hymenoptera, Coleoptera ,Homoptera,Rotifera and lower crustaceans .It is also reported in certain vertebrates; in domestic turkey.It occurs sporadically in large number of plants .               Types of parthenogenesis Two types: 1)Natural parthenogenesis 2) Artificial parthenogenesis                                Natural  First reported by Bonnet...

                  A pomixis Definition : Formation of seeds without the fertilisation is called apomixis.  *Term given by Winkler.   It is a specialised asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction. *Common in Asteraceae family,in grasses and 35other family.                 Types of Apomixis ***Adventitious Embryony /Sporophytic Budding:  When diploid cells of Sporophytic tissues like nucellus and integument start to divide and develop into embryo. From nucellus cells ,nucellar embryo is formed. From integument cells , integumentary embryo is formed. Examples : Citrus, Mango 🥭,Opuntia. ** * Apogamy : When Sporophyte develop directly from the gametophyte without fertilization (meiosis occur),the phenomenon called apogamy.Such sporophytes are haploid and non-viable(Non-recurrent Agamospermy). *** Parthenogenesis : The phenomenon in which egg develop direc...

     Galactose tolerance test   It is a laboratory test done to determine the ability of liver to convert galactose into glycogen. Galactose is a monosaccharide,almost exclusively used by liver.The Normal liver is able to convert galactose into glucose,but this function is impaired in intrahepatic disease and the amount of blood galactose and urine galactose is excessive.The liver can be assessed by measuring the utilisation of galactose. This is called Galactose tolerance test.Also called liver function tes t. Types:   1.  The oral method (require 5hours)  2.  The intravenous method (require 2hours,this is more accurat e) Oral galactose tolerance test (OGTT) : This test is performed in the morning after a night's fast.A fasting food sample is collected .Sample serve as ' control'. 40mg galactose  dissolved in a cup full of water is given orally.Further blood samples(to determine whether galactose is metabolized or not) are ...

            Life Span ** The period from birth to the natural death of an organism is called life span. **Life span vary from few days to thousand years. **Life span of an organism does not related with their sizes. Example :Size of crow and parrot are nearly same but their life span show wide differences. **No organism is immortal, except single celled organisms. **Life span of some organisms:   Elephant     : 65years   Dog             : 20-30 years   Cow.           : 20-25 years   Horse         : 25-39 years   Crow           : 15 years   Parrot.        : 140 years   Fruitfly        : 1 month   Butterfly.    : 1-2 weeks   Tortoise     : 100-150 years   Crocodile    : 60 years   Rose.  ...